Number of items in the computerized bibliography of geomorphology of Britain that are classified as ‘Coasts’ (total 1400), by year of publication.

Number of items under selected keywords (some items appear more than once as several keywords are allocated to each).

Geographical distribution of UK coastal research, based on a comprehensive computerized bibliography of books and papers on the geomorphology of the British Isles, containing some 9000 entries, compiled by K.M. Clayton. Of the 9000 entries, some 1400 are classified as dealing with coasts. These in turn are indexed under the 100 km squares of the National Grid and the number of published articles is shown (encircled number) for each relevant National Grid square, or combination of National Grid squares. As the map shows, they are strongly biased to the southern half of Britain. Because some articles cover the coast in more than one grid square, the total number of entries on this map is 1671.

Geographical analysis of the British coastal literature, using selected grid squares only.

Geological map of Great Britain, also showing the locations of the Coastal Geomorphology GCR Sites. The map shows sedimentary rocks classified according to their age of deposition and igneous rocks according to their mode of origin. The numbers in the key indicate age in millions of years (Ma). (Permit number IPR/26-45C British Geological Survey © NERC. All rights reserved.)

Relative rock resistance for 71 different outcrops (divided by lithology and age) was established through computer analysis of data on altitude, dissection, and geology for a grid of kilometre squares covering Great Britain and the surrounding continental shelf. Six consistent classes were established using up to 19 variables in various combinations. White areas are unclassified. (From Clayton and Shamoon, 1998, fig. 1).

General order of resistance to erosion of British rock types (from Clayton and Shamoon, 1998).

Spring tidal amplitude (measured in metres) around the British coast. Elevations should be doubled to give spring tidal range. (UKDMAP 1998, © NERC.)

Significant wave height exceeded for 10% of the year (significant wave height is the mean value of the highest 1/3 of all waves). Wave height is one of the manifestations of the quantity of wave energy. (UKDMAP 1998 © NERC.)

Littoral sediment cells and subcells and direction of littoral drift. After Motyka and Brampton, 1993 and HR Wallingford, 1997. Cells are numbered 1 to 7 anticlockwise from St. Abb’s Head for Scotland and there are three subcells within the Orcadian cell and two within the Shetland cell (shown in the inset); clockwise from St Abb’s Head, cells are numbered 1–11 for England and Wales.

Holocene sea-level history: (a) global view; (b) sea-level history in the area around The Wash (Norfolk/Lincolnshire). Three views of the global change in sea level over the last 10 000 years are shown in (a); the smooth curves combine data from different areas, a reconstruction based on a smaller region will show an irregular pattern over time (Shepard, 1963; Bloom, 1978; Mörner, 1972). Because of the local effects of uplift and subsidence, it is increasingly recognized that such global sea-level curves have the potential to mislead and that local relative sea-level curves are generally more secure. The sea-level curve in (b) for the area around The Wash is based on an accreting sedimentary sequence preserved in an area that is subsiding at an average rate of 0.9 m ka–1. If this subsidence has been at a steady rate, then the local relative sea-level curve (the pecked line) can be converted to a eustatic curve (the solid line) by subtracting the effect of subsidence. (Based on Chorley et al., 1984, and Tooley and Shennan, 1987.)

a) Uplift and subsidence, based on trends in sea level around the coast of Britain. These trends are established by comparing local sea-level curves with the eustatic trend shown in Figure 1.7b. Open circles indicate that the data were obtained by the author by extrapolation. The vertical scale on the graphs is in metres OD, the horizontal scale is in 103 sidereal years before present. (After Tooley and Shennan, 1987, p.136, fig. 4.9.). b)Map of isobases of uplift (positive values) and subsidence (negative values) following the Lateglacial and Holocene deglaciation of the British Isles. The rates shown (in mm a–1) are of crustal movement in Britain. Isobases cannot be drawn for much of southern England; point estimates are shown for guidance. (After Shennan, 1989, fig. 9.)

Coastal engineering structures in Britain (‘coastal protection‘ and ‘sea defences’), shown as coastline with heavier line weight. Note the concentration on south-eastern England, Bristol channel, and north Wales and and north-west England. (Data from Halcrow Group Ltd for England and Wales, published with permission from Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs; Scottish data after Ramsey and Brampton, 2000a–f.)

Morphosedimentological classification of the British coast (based on European Commission (1998 – the CORINE project érosion cotière).

Main features of each GCR Site, broadly following the classification of King, 1978, to show where different features are represented.

Coastal Annex I habitats occurring in the UK (from McLeod et al., 2002.)

(a) Clò Mór cliff (193m) to the east of Cape Wrath, Sutherland is a good example of a plunging cliff, with no shore platform development, which has been inherited from former sea levels. (b) Recession of the Chalk cliff at Sewerby, west of Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, has produced a steep lower cliff with a sloping shore platform whose upper junction is obscured by a gravel beach composed of chalk gravels together with glacial gravels derived from bevelling of the cliff-top till. (c) Rapid erosion of the soft and unconsolidated glacial till cliff at Atwick, Holderness, Yorkshire, progresses by undercutting and rotational failure that is accentuated when the cliff-foot beach is thin or absent. This view looking north shows a very thin upper beach veneer over an area of exposed till shore platform (locally called an ‘ord’) whose surface is strewn with till blocks eroded from the cliff. (Photos: J.D.Hansom.)

Coastal cliffs and their related shore platforms. A, cliff with intertidal ramp platform; B, cliff with shore platform at about high tide level; C, cliff coast with shore platform at about low tide level; D, plunging cliff with no shore platform; E, relict cliff with platform marked by emerged beach; F, typical inland cliff with talus at foot. (After Bird, 1984.)

Processes of cliff retreat. SA = subaerial erosion of material, symbolized by the large arrow; M = marine erosion, symbolized by the fine arrows – eroded material is removed offshore and alongshore by marine process. (a) SA<M; here steep cliffs, undercut by marine processes, develop. (b) SA=M; here a balance between the two sets of processes allows small beaches to develop at the toes of sloping cliffs; (c) SA>M; here subaerial mass movements by sliding produce a low stepped profile and marine transport of plentiful debris. On most coastal slopes, the rate of erosion of material falls far short of the ability of waves and tides to remove it, so that the slope angles are maintained (a,b). However, on weaker rocks (c) material is delivered at a rate controlled in large part by the ability of the sea to maintain removal and thus the rate of basal erosion, in which case slope angle will decline until sediment input matches the rate of removal. (After Hansom, 1988.)

Likely recession rates in different materials (compiled by Carter, 1988, from data in Sunamura, 1983).

Toppling in the Torridonian sandstone cliffs south of Sandwood Bay, Sutherland. Dipping beds of well-jointed sandstones are subject to subaerial weathering and failure. Strong surf prohibits the debris from accumulating at the cliff foot. The stack in the distance is Am Buachaille (Gaelic for ‘herdsman’). (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Cartoon depicting erosion of a vertical cliff under breaking-, broken- and unbroken-wave attack. Breaking waves cause the greatest amount of erosion. (Based on Sunamura, 1983, 1992 and Hansom, 1988.)

Temporal variations in abrasion rate ()V/)t), and beach elevation, h, expressed by the thickness of sand deposited at the cliff base, using data from wave-tank experiments. )V/)t = volume of eroded material per unit time. (After Sunamura, 1976.) Table 2.2 Primary, secondary and tertiary controls on cliff form (based on May, 1997a).

A classification of active sea-cliff forms according to comparative rates of subaerial erosion and marine erosion (SA = subaerial erosion; M = marine erosion). Type ‘A’ profiles are for cliffs of uniform resistance to erosion; type ‘B’, where a more resistant rock layer is present at the top; and type ‘C’, where there is a layer of more resistant rock at the base. (Based on Hansom, 1988, after Emery and Kuhn, 1982.)

The development of caves, arches and stacks. Wave erosion is more effective along faults and joints where the rock is weaker, and so caves become excavated along these lines of weakness.

Cliff height, and to some extent cliff form, is a function of the height of land cut by the cliffline. The photograph shows the cliff form of the Seven Sisters, Sussex, an almost straight cliffline truncates a series of dry valleys, the seven intervening ridges forming the Seven Sisters. (Photo: V.J. May)

Plot of platform gradient against tidal range. Each point is a regional average of many surveyed profiles and suggests a direct relationship between gradient of platforms and spring tidal range. (After Trenhaile, 1987, p. 207.)

Tidal duration curves from three locations as plotted in varying detail by two sources. Tidal duration is the length of time that still-water level occupies each elevation within the tidal range. ((a) After Trenhaile and Layzell (1981); (b) after Carr and Graff (1982).)

Flow-diagram model of coastal cliff development over two glacial/interglacial cycles, starting from a vertical, unbevelled cliff profile, (a). During low sea levels, periglacial activity results in talus accumulation at the bases of cliffs. During high sea levels, the talus is removed and the cliff trimmed and stepped, and bevelled profiles (b) develop where the talus reached the cliff top during the last glacial stage, whereas multi-storied profiles (c) develop where the talus extended only part of the way up the cliff face. Both (b) and (c) cliff forms can be affected by a subsequent interglacial-glacial cycle, leading to the numerous possible complex stepped profiles (d) that depend on the resultant level of talus development between cycles. (After Griggs and Trenhaile, 1994.)

The relationship between the occurrence of bevelled cliffs and ice limits in the British Isles. (After Griggs and Trenhaile, 1994.)

Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I habitat ‘Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic coasts’ and/or ‘Submerged or partially submerged sea caves’ as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, November 2002.)

High-cliffed coast of Great Britain, showing the location of the sites selected for the GCR specifically for coastal geomorphology features of hard-rock cliffs. Other coastal geomorphology GCR sites that include hard-rock cliffs in the assemblage are also indicated.

Hard-rock cliff GCR sites, including those sites described in other chapters of the present volume that include hard-rock cliffs in the assemblage.

Geological sketch map of the St Kilda archipelago showing the dominantly volcanic nature of the bedrock geology and the controlling effect of the granophyre sheets of the west in producing an approximately linear coastline. For relative geographical positions of the component islands of the archipelago, see Figures 3.1 and 3.4. (After Nature Conservancy Council, 1987.)

a) The west coast of Hirta, the main island of St Kilda, looking towards Dùn, is characterized by stepped cliffs that steepen downwards to plunge steeply to well below sea level. (Photo J.D. Hansom.). b)Stac an Armin, seen here with the vertical plunging cliffs of Boreray (the second-largest island of St Kilda) in the foreground. This is the highest sea stack in Great Britain. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Bathymetric map of the St Kilda archipelago. Depths are given in metres. Note the prominent break of slope where the roughly circular igneous complex stands proud of the otherwise low-gradient seabed. The seabed lies at c. –120 m and abruptly gives way to steep submarine cliffs that rise to a c. –60 m surface. In turn this surface abruptly gives way to submarine cliffs that may rise above sea level. Bathymetry is in metres below OD. (After Sutherland, 1984.)

Geomorphological sketch map of the Villians of Hamnavoe showing extensive surfaces affected by both low-level wave-stripping in the south, and high-level wave-stripping in the north. For general location see Figure 3.1. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

The Villians of Hamnavoe looking north towards South Head. The scoured surface is littered with both eroded boulders and debris thrown up by waves. Since some of this debris is of modern human origin (plastic fishing floats etc.) the waves that sweep the surface and emplace the debris and boulders are likely to be recent. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Altitude and orientation of some cliff-top boulder deposits in Shetland (after Hansom et al., in press).

The largest of three wave-emplaced boulder ridges that occur on top of a 15 m-high cliff some 50 m inland of the cliff edge at the Grind of the Navir, to the south of the Villians of Hamnavoe. Note 1.8 m-high figure for scale. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Geomorphological sketch map of Papa Stour showing extensive wave-scoured cliff-top surfaces, together with stacks, caves, arches and geos. For general location, see Figure 3.1. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

Fault-controlled stacks at Lamba Ness, Papa Stour. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Coastal geomorphology of Foula. Sections 1–7 refer to descriptions in the text. The highest and most spectacular of these are Section 3 and Section 5 where the cliffs rise to 248 m at the Noup, and 376 m at the Kame respectively. See Figure 3.1 for general location. (After Pirkis, 1963.)

Coastal features of the West Coast of Orkney. Erosion of the Hoy Sandstone and Stromness flags (inset) has produced an impressive coast of steep cliffs, caves and stacks. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

The Old Man of Hoy, West Coast of Orkney, showing incipient failure cracks. London’s ‘Big Ben’ is shown for scale in the inset. (After Hansom and Evans, 1995.)

The spectacular arch at Qui Ayre, Yesnaby, West Coast of Orkney, is one of several arches and columnar stacks in the area in various stages of development. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Coastal geomorphology of north-east Caithness, Duncansby to Skirza Head GCR site. Descriptions of sections 1–4 and of representative profiles A–C are in the text. The geology of the area is predominantly composed of horizontally bedded Old Red Sandstones (ORS), which have been eroded into steep cliffs. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

The three large stacks of Duncansby stand in stark contrast to the otherwise bleak and smooth landscape of the north-east coast of Caithness. Looking north towards Duncansby Head and South Ronaldsay, Orkney, in the background. (Photo: courtesy of Ken Crossan.)

Geomorphological map and geological sketch map of Tarbat Ness, Ross and Cromarty, north-east Scotland. The eastern Moray Firth shore is fault-controlled and rocky with a prominent emerged cliffline. The northern Dornoch Firth shore has well-developed emerged gravel beach-ridges. At the Ness itself, the low rock shore platform is characterized by a range of well-developed weathering pits and tafoni that are rare on Scottish coasts. At ‘S’ an emerged till-plugged stack occurs in front of the relict cliff. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

The submerged landscape of North Uist looking north-west over Lochmaddy. Submergence of a low undulating rock surface has resulted in a landscape of low rock basins, platforms and skerries with a range of tidal and salinity conditions. (Photo: P. & A. Macdonald/SNH.)

Coastal geomorphology of the Loch Maddy–Sound of Harris area, North Uist, showing the extensive areas of intertidal rock platform, small islets and skerries produced by submergence of a pre-existing low-lying rocky surface. The eastern coast is fault-controlled. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

Geomorphological map of the coast of northern Islay between Mala Bholsa and Rubha a’Mhàil, northern Islay, showing a fine series of emerged rock platforms and beaches some of which have been capped by glacial moraines whose age informs the chronology for the platforms and beaches. MHWS = Mean High-Water Springs. For general location see Figure 3.1. (After Dawson, 1991.)

The coast of northern Islay, south of Rubha a’Mhàil, showing the High Rock Platform and its backing cliff. In the foreground the Main Rock Platform and its backing cliff is also well developed. Lateglacial and Postglacial emerged gravels also adorn parts of the coastline. (Photo: J.E.Gordon.)

Geomorphological map of the Bullers of Buchan, north-east Scotland. The inset on the right shows the typical cliff profile relative to high-water mark (HWM). Much of the cliff tops are veneered by glacial till. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

The Pot, Bullers of Buchan is a 60 m-deep enlarged blowhole connected to the sea by a 15 m-wide tunnel-like arch. (Photo J.D. Hansom.)

Geomorphological map and geological sketch map of the Dunbar GCR site showing a series of emerged rock shore platforms that have been eroded across a varied geology and are backed by cliffs of varying heights. Platform A lies at c. 20 m OD and is ice-moulded; Platform B is intertidal; Platform C underlies emerged Holocene beach deposits and Platform D is subtidal. (After Gordon and Sutherland, 1993.)

Geomorphological map and geological sketch map of St Abb’s Head showing the heavily indented nature of the coast resulting from a strong structural control. (Modified from unpublished work by W. Ritchie.)

Main features of the Tintagel coast (i) Start Point to Dennis Point: vertical and slope-over-wall cliffs; (ii) Trebarwith Strand: sand beach backed by cliffs over 90 m high; (iii) Hole Beach: caves developed on line of faults and thrust planes; (iv) Penhallic Point to West Cove: slope-over-wall; (v) West Cove to Bossiney Haven: complex coast with peninsulas at different stages of separation from mainland; (vi) Bossiney Haven: geo and arch. The inset shows characteristic slope-over-wall forms between Trebarwith Strand and Tintagel Island.

Elephant Rock, Bossiney, showing the relationship of cliff features to vertical jointing. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Major fault and thrust at Tintagel as the focus for marine erosion, cave and ultimately stack development. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Examples of coastline development controlled by major faults, Penhallic Point and Barras Nose. See Figure 3.25 for general location. (After Wilson, 1952.)

Erosional features of the south Pembrokeshire coast. (After John, 1978.)

Cliff profiles, South Pembroke Cliffs GCR site. Cliffs are steep, near-vertical and occasionally overhang where the dip is to landward. (Photo: S. Campbell.)

Arch and stack development. (A) Form of the arch and stack at The Green Bridge of Wales. (B) Interpretation of development of the feature. An initial arch develops on the line of a discontinuity, and extends up-dip by spalling and collapse of up-dip rock surfaces. The arch roof collapses and a new stack is isolated.

Hartland Quay GCR site – showing the pattern of truncated valleys. The profiles A–A’, B–B’, C–C’ are shown at the bottom of the figure. Section I lies to the north of Section II. (After Arber, 1911.)

Cliffs, platform, beach and truncated valleys south of Hartland Quay. (Photo: Lou Johnson, www.walkingbritain.co.uk.)

Cross profiles of Solfach and the Gwada Valley, showing the contrast between the ria of Solfach and the infilled former ria at Gwada.

Location of significant soft-cliffed coasts and platforms in Great Britain, indicating the sites selected for the GCR specifically for soft-rock cliff geomorphology. Other coastal geomorphology sites that include soft-rock cliffs and sites selected for the Mass Movements GCR ‘Block’ that occur on the coast are also shown.

The main features of soft-rock cliff coastal geomorphology GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain soft-rock cliffs in the assemblage. Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface.

Rates of retreat along the North Sea Coast of England from Bridlington to Clacton-on-Sea. Rates are shown as averages for each length of cliff; where the length of cliff exceeds 5 km, values are every 5 km along the coast. Values are totals (metres) for 100 years to 1980. See also Table 2.1 and Table 4.2 (Compiled by K.M. Clayton)

Rates of cliff-top retreat of soft-cliffed coasts (from various sources).

Retreat of the coastal cliff at Dunwich, Suffolk, plotted on the 1589 map of Agas; the 1977 cliff top as surveyed by A.H.W Robinson. (After Robinson, 1980a, p.141)

(a–c) Undercutting of the cliffs at Ladram Bay. (a) General view looking north showing the stacks associated with headlands; small pocket beaches occupy the bays (b) Two natural arches as they appeared at the beginning of the 20th century in a picture postcard, and (c) the present-day equivalent, view looking SSW. The strata are dipping seawards. (Photos (a,c): V.J. May.)

The cliffline, platforms and stacks at Ladram Bay. Characteristic profiles are shown (A–A' and B–B'). Of particular note are the absence of stacks below the high cliffs, the presence of strata with fewer discontinuities in the lower stacks, and the tendency for stacks to be associated with headlands.

Pattern of seaward-facing micro-cliffs on the landward-dipping strata (the strike of the strata is indicated) on the low-gradient intertidal platform in Robin Hood’s Bay.

North Yorkshire coast cliff retreat rates in m a–1 (based on Agar, 1960).

Shore platform at Robin Hood’s Bay looking east from Mill Beck (see Figure 4.6 for location). (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

(a) Cross-sections, showing characteristic forms of the platform east of Watchet, where the dip of strata to landward or seaward strongly affects the pattern of micro-cliffs, (b) three characteristic platform profiles at Nash Point, Vale of Glamorgan (see GCR site report in the present chapter) where dip of strata is more uniform than at Watchet. Mean high- and low-water spring tide levels (MHWS and MLWS) and mean high- and low-water neap tide levels (MHWN and MLWN) are shown. (Part (b) is after Trenhaile, 1972.)

Cliffs and shore platform at Kilve, Somerset (Photo: V.J. May)

Nash Point, this view from directly above the site demonstrates the near-vertical nature of the cliffs and the width of platforms at low water. The micro-relief of the shore platforms is controlled largely by the the relative strengths of alternating beds of limestone and argillaceous rocks and jointing patterns, on this photograph particularly noticable in the vicinity of Nash Point itself (see also Figure 4.8b). (Photo: CCUCAP, © the Countryside Council for Wales.)

The sediment budget of beaches between Lyme Regis (to the westmost part of the map) and Seatown. (After Bray, 1990a.)

View looking south-east from Golden Cap, showing the depleted shingle beach at Seatown, platforms that are cut across folded strata, and the residual boulders at the west end of the beach (foreground). (Photo: V.J. May.)

(a) Cross-section of the Black Ven system (Lyme Regis to Golden Cap GCR site) and sediment supply to its beach. See also Figure 4.11. In (b) the volumes of sediment (in m3 a–1) moving through the Black Ven beach are given. (Based on Brunsden, 1973 and Bray, 1990a.)

The Spittles, east of Lyme Regis. (A) Main landslide scar – sand and chert cliff; (B) landslide storage and throughput system; (C) sea cliff and mud flows; (D) beach; (E) dissected shore platform. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Variations in the rates of cliff retreat from Blackgang to the Needles (to the west of Scratchell’s Bay), Isle of Wight. Cliff profiles for sections A to E are shown. (After Hutchinson, 1984.)

The Needles and Scratchell’s Bay, Isle of Wight, with narrow flint and chalk beach fed by contemporary rockfalls. (Photo: J.E. Gordon.)

Sediment inputs from cliff retreat (m3 a–1) annual longshore potential sediment transport and variations with wind direction. See text for explanation. Total sediment input = 392 908 m3 a–1 (After Davies, 1997.)

Differences of failure in the cliffs of south-west Isle of Wight, ranging from large rotational slides to shallow failures. (After Hutchinson, 1984.)

Characteristic slope failures at Compton Down, looking west, showing shallow slides in chalk rock. (Photo: V.J. May.)

View looking east from Compton Down where chalk pebbles typically survive for little more than 1 km owing to their erosion during longshore drift. Well-developed cusps commonly characterize this beach. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Cliff-face failures west of Freshwater Bay. (Based on British Gas aerial survey, February 1996.)

Sketch map of boulder ridges, South Foreland to St Margaret’s Bay within the Kingsdown to Dover GCR site. Characteristic cliff-platform profiles through A–A1 and B–B1 are shown in the lower part of the diagram.

View looking north of St Margaret’s Bay, Kingsdown to Dover GCR site. (A) Small, fringing beach of flint, mostly derived from recent cliff falls; movement alongshore is restricted by fall debris; (B) large toe of a slide extending beyond low-water mark; (C) cliff being eroded where previous rock fall has been completely removed; (D) vegetated slope that developed behind a former slide toe and debris; these features then protected cliff-foot bedrock from erosion; (E) typical upper cliff profile above debis slopes. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Langdon Bay. (a) Boulder rampart residue from earlier debris tongue; (b) in the foreground, talus from a clif failure is seen; in the background, residual boulder fields from flow-type failures are present; (c) parallel ridges bounding a large flow-failure that left the platform comparatively clear of large debris. (Photos: V.J. May.)

Sketch map of the Beachy Head to Seaford Head GCR site, showing the five subdivisions of the site as described in the text.

(a) Beachy Head, cliff top view looking east, the cliffs are characterized by slab failures in the lower cliff that gradually undermine the upper cliff. (b) Cliff collapse at Beachy Head, early 1999; the failure affected the whole cliff face and produced a very large debris area at the cliff foot. (Photos: V.J. May.)

Relationships between joints, cliff morphology and retreat near Birling Gap. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Detail of the chalk and flint platforms east of Birling Gap. (Photo: V.J. May.)

The cave–arch–stack sequence at Handfast Point, looking north-east, with Old Harry Rocks to the right. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Ballard Down. Views looking east from SZ 038 810(a) taken on 12 January 2001 and (b) on 16 January 2001, showing the development of the landslip over four days. In (a) note the chalk scar formed by the failure of the slope. In (b), note the rectangular scar of the shallow rockslide that followed removal of bedrock and weathered slope materials at the back of the earlier failure. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Cave–arch–stack development at Handfast Point 1887–1996. (Sources: 1887 Ordnance Survey and May and Heeps, 1985)

Multi-faceted northern cliffline west of Handfast Point towards Studland. 1. Vertical upper cliff; 2. vegetated debris slope; 3. lower vertical cliff; 4. smooth cliff-platform junction; 5. notch; 6. flint and chalk pocket beach; 7. chalk platform.

Wave refraction at Flamborough Head, showing variations in wave direction crossing the platform owing to wave refraction. See Figure 4.34 for location. (Based on aerial photographs in Pethick, 1984.)

Sketch map of the Flamborough Head coastal geomorphology GCR site, showing the three main divisions of the locality.

Flamborough Head, (a) looking east from Thornwick Nab. The upper cliff is in Devensian tills, the lower cliff in chalk with numerous caves, arches and platforms. (b) Looking WNW at Bempton Cliffs; steep cliffs with a short upper vegetated facet in tills. Pipe-like forms extend down the whole height of chalk cliff; the cliffs have a narrow platform with a cobble and boulder beach. (Photos: V.J. May.)

Cave and blowhole development at Flamborough Head, shown schematically in plan view. There are several stages in the development of blowholes here. Stage 1: caves develop along major joints or faults. Stage 2: caves extend upwards into the overlying till, which begins to collapse allowing hollows to appear in the till. Stage 3: caves merge and blowholes coalesce. Stage 4: Further merging of caves, cave rooves collapse, arches and/or geos develop. Subsequently, isolated blocks or stacks may develop.

Sketch map of the Joss Bay coastal geomorphology GCR site.

One of two stacks in Botany Bay. This stack was joined to the mainland in 1842 and became separated during the 19th century. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Wave refraction and reflection in Porth Neigwl. Wave orthogonals show the direction of travel of waves and are drawn at right angles to the wave crest. Open arrows are also orthogonals for reflected waves.

Lost villages of the Holderness coast. As the till has been easily eroded for hundreds of years at rates of 2 m a–1, there has been substantial loss of agricultural land and villages. (After Hansom, 1988)

Land-loss by natural sections of the Holderness coast, 1852–1952 (Valentin, 1954, 1971).

The relationship between cliff height and erosion along the Holderness coast. (After Valentin, 1971, in Steers, 1971a). For the cliff height profile, the vertical exaggeration is × 30.

Classification of beach structures based on their plan form (after Pethick, 1984); outline definitions are provided in the glossary of the present volume.

Beach morphology. Synonyms: The term ‘ridge-and-runnel’ is sometimes used for ‘bar and trough’; ‘ball and low’ is the old name for ‘bar and trough’; ‘bar’, ‘offshore bar’ etc., are old names for barrier islands, not to be confused with longshore bar; ‘swash bar’ is the old name for ‘berm’; ‘high-tide beach’ is used for ‘beach face’; ‘low-tide beach’ is used for the seaward edge of low-tide terrace. See also Figure 5.2. (After Pethick, 1984, p. 93.)

(A) Beach terminology: (1) beach, (2) shore, (3) upper beach (cordon littoral), (4) foreshore, (5) break of slope between upper beach and foreshore, (6) inner side of beach ridge, (7) lagoon, (8) marsh, (9) berms, (10) storm beach, (11) coastline, (12) ridges and runnels on the foreshore, (13) channel on foreshore, (14) pool in runnel of foreshore, (15) beach cusp, (16) apex of cusp, (17) bay of cusp, (18) horn of cusp, (19) ripple marks. (B) Formation of rhomboidal ripple marks. (After Fairbridge, 1968, p. 67.)

The relationship between mean grain size of sand and beach slope, (beach slope is given as a ratio, from 1:5 to 1:100). (After King, 1972a, p. 325.)

Beach steepness in East Anglia as a function of the proportion of shingle. The scatter of points is largely a function of variations in exposure to higher wave energies. (After Clayton, 1992, p. 64.)

Sources and sinks of coastal sediment can be quantified to produce a sediment budget. Note the human element in the coastal sediment budget. (After Davies, 1980.)

The run-up (oblique swash) and longshore current contributions to longshore or littoral drift. The amount of sediment moved alongshore depends on the wave energy component oblique to the shore. (After Fairbridge, 1968 and Komar, 1976.)

Some examples of English spits: (A) Spurn Head; (B) Orfordness; (C) Hurst Castle; and (D) Dawlish Warren. While the plan form of spits varies greatly, they all require an updrift sediment feed to form. In most cases, especially shingle spits, the sediment supply has now greatly decreased. (After Pethick, 1984, p. 108.)

The formation of beach cusps. Cusps vary in size, but typical separation is in the range 2–10 m. (After Pethick, 1984, p. 112.)

Sweep zones are a means of establishing long-term trends in beach form and sediment volume. These examples show the recovery of the south Lincolnshire beaches after the storm surge of early 1953. The sweep zones mark the vertical range of successive profiles (usually surveyed every few months), and by establishing two or more time periods, longer-term trends can be separated from short-term changes linked to changing wave climate. MHST: mean high spring tide; MHNT: mean high neap tide. (After King, 1972a, p. 359.)

Profile of ridge-and-runnel beach (Blackpool). Ridge-and-runnel beaches occur where wide sandy beaches are dominated by local waves and swell is excluded, as here within the limited fetch of the Irish Sea. The short-period waves require a steep beach slope for equilibrium, and this is achieved through the formation of a series of ridges separated by runnels. (After King, 1972a, p. 342.)

Coastal barriers enclosing coastal lagoons, Slapton, Devon and Chesil Beach, Dorset. Each of these barriers show gradation in pebble size along the barrier; coarse material is at the southern end of the Slapton barrier at Hallsands, and at the eastern end of Chesil Beach. (After Bird, 1984, p. 144.)

The shaping of a recurved spit, based on the outline of Hurst Castle Spit (see GCR site report in Chapter 6). Waves from A, arriving at an angle to the shore, set up longshore drifting which supplies sediment to the spit; waves from B and C determine the orientation of its seaward margin and recurved laterals respectively. (After King and McCullagh, 1971 and Bird, 1984, p. 148.)

Coastal barriers backed by saltmarsh, North Norfolk Coast GCR site (see GCR site report in Chapter 11). The barriers and recurves carry sand dunes; behind are sheltered tidal inlets and extensive areas of saltmarsh, part of which has been reclaimed for grazing. (After Bird, 1984, p. 149.)

The formation of coastal sand dunes on a prograding coast (A–D). The older dunes farthest inland develop relatively mature soils and vegetation, and often the sand differs in colour from the younger dunes nearest the beach. The pecked line on E shows the effect that rising sea level and reduction in sediment supply has on sand dunes. Most of the dunes of Britain show such frontal erosion to a greater or lesser degree. Most dunes on the Scottish western and northern coastas are erosional. (Based on Hansom, 2001; Hansom and Angus, 2001, after Bird, 1984, p. 180.)

Sequential development of the dune ridges in a dune system. The blowthroughs of the second and third dune ridges eventually form into parabolic dunes in the older ridge. (After Pethick, 1984.)

Ways in which cliff-top dunes may develop. (A) A transgressive dune truncated by cliff recession; (B) a dune formed at higher sea level stranded by cliff recession after a fall in relative sea level; (C) a dune formed during a lower sea level truncated by cliff recession as sea level rises; (D) a dune that has advanced from a neighbouring beach across a headland. (After Bird, 1984, p. 190.)

Forms and typology of gravel and shingle structures and the GCR sites that represent them. The schematic diagrams show the plan form of the structure concerned. Italic type indicates presence of relict features at a site. In some cases gravel forms the core of the feature, and is now covered in sand.

Coastal shingle and gravel structures around Britain, showing the location of the sites selected for the GCR specifically for gravel/shingle coast features, and some of the other larger gravel structures.

Main features and sediment sources of gravel/shingle beach and ness GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain shingle beach/ness structures in the assemblage.

Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I habitat ‘Perennial vegetation of stony banks’ and/or ‘Annual vegetation of drift lines’ as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

Historical recession of position of beach crests at Westward Ho! (Based on Campbell and Bowen, 1989 and Keene, 1996.)

Comparison of geomorphological form between Slapton Sands and Loe Bar. Slapton Sands encloses a large lagoon, part of which has been infilled by sediment and become a brackish wetland. At Loe Bar, a cliff-foot beach confined between headlands has blocked off a narrow estuary.

Loe Bar, looking approximately south-east, showing the bar and its washover features. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Hallsands and Slapton Sands represent parts of a once-continuous gravel beach. Offshore, there is evidence of buried shorelines and a possible former barrier beach. The present-day shingle beach is separated by rock headlands. (After Hails, 1975a.)

Wave refraction along the coast between Slapton Ley and Hallsands. The Skerries Bank affects waves entering Start Bay from the south-west. Wave energy is concentrated in locations such as Hallsands and Beesands during north-easterly winds. (After Hails, 1975a– c)

View, looking north-west, of the shingle barrier beach of Slapton Sands, enclosing the freshwater lagoon, Slapton Ley. Artifical sea-walls protect Torcross in the foreground. (Photo: V. J. May.)

Cross-section of beach at Hallsands, showing the historic beach levels prior to dredging. (After Mottershead, 1986.)

The ruins of the landward row of the houses of the former village of Hallsands. The seaward row of houses has completely disappeared. Compare with Figure 6.9. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Sketch map of the Budleigh Salterton Beach GCR site.

Budleigh Salterton beach, looking west, also showing the cliffs that provide the source material for the gravel beach. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Chesil Beach. View looking north-west, from Portland, with Chesilton in the foreground. The beach reaches 14 m OD and over 150m wide at its eastern end, where limited washover still occurs in spite of artifical modifications. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Map and sections of Chesil Beach. For general location see Figure 6.2. (Based on borehole information in Carr and Blackley, 1969, 1973; and Carr and Seaward, 1990.)

Sediment profiles of Chesil Beach and The Fleet. Sample cores are shown in sequence along the beach and The Fleet. Some peat layers have been dated in cores from the bed of The Fleet (dates are given in years BP). (Based on Carr and Blackley, 1973; Coombe, 1996 and Whittaker, pers. comm.)

West Bay, Chesil Beach, showing the retreat of the shoreline and lack of sediment at the western end of the modern Chesil Beach. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Chesil Beach (a) relationships between modern beach and dated peats and water levels (mean high-water springs and mean low-water springs, MHWS and MLWS, are shown). By c. 5000 years BP, the supply of flint was able to create a barrier beach atop an earlier sand ridge and estuarine peats. (b) Seabed features of eastern Lyme Bay and their relationship to Chesil Beach. Note the relation of bedrock exposures and seabed contours to the present shore, which probably affected the development of the earlier beach form. ‘First attack’ indicates the bathymetric contour representing the shoreline first attacked by the sea at the date shown.

(A) Porlock barrier and back-barrier; (B) barrier crest and back-barrier changes before and after the 1996 barrier breaching; (C) barrier profile changes due to the 1996 storm.

Overview of Porlock barrier (October, 1997) looking east. The 1996 barrier breach is identifiable, as are the storm generated washover fans at point NW (New Works sluice gate); HP is Hurlstone Point. (Photo: W. B. Whalley.)

Distal recurves at Hurst Castle Spit – the history of geomorphological development. (After Nicholls and Webber, 1987a.)

(a) Changes in the profile of Hurst Castle Spit. (After Nicholls and Webber, 1987a.) (b) 1996 coast protection works at Hurst Castle Spit. The pecked line in (b) delimits the saltmarsh edge.

Aerial photo of Hurst Castle spit. 1. Distal end of modern beach; 2. Groynes protecting Henrician (16th century) castle; 3. and 4. earlier recurves; 5. saltmarsh – the seaward edge of saltmarsh is undergoing retreat; 6. Spartina anglica-dominated saltmarsh, declining in area; 7. coastal defences at Keyhaven; 8. most commonly overtopped and artificially rebuilt section of beach ridge; 9. waves approaching from south-west. For discussion of the saltmarsh features, see GCR site report in Chapter 10 for Keyhaven Marsh. (Photo: courtesy Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs, Crown Copyright, Great Scotland Yard.)

Historical changes at Pagham Harbour 1785–1961. (After Robinson, 1955.)

Sediment pathways at Pagham Harbour. Arrows show sediment pathways with estimated annual volumes. (Based on Lewis and Duvivier, 1976; Hooke et al., 1996; and Harlow, 1979.)

The Ayres of Swinister: a triple gravel barrier. Only the southern barrier is a true tombolo, the others are spits that enclose The Houb, a tidal basin. For general location, see Figure 6.2.

South Ayre and North Ayre at high tide looking north-east towards Swinister Voe, showing the very sheltered nature of the site. Fish farms can be seen at the North Ayre (upper left of the photograph) (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Washover lobes of gravel on the tombolo of South Ayre (to the right), with Fora Ness in the distance. Intertidal peats, which extend subtidally, are exposed at low tide in the lagoon between South Ayre and the unnamed barrier to the north-east (on the left). (Photo: Lorne Gill/SNH.)

Graphs of modelled relative sea level against time over the last 16 000 years, along a south– north transect from Shetland to the Firth of Forth. (After Lambeck, 1993; Hansom, 2001.)

Sketch map of the Whiteness Head area. The GCR site lies entirely within the eastern site area; the arrow indicates direction of net longshore sediment movement.

Map of historical changes in the Whiteness Head Spit between 1946 and 1973. (After Smith, 1974.)

Historical evolution of the Whiteness Head Spit between 1880 and 1991. In 111 years the spit has lengthened considerably and the creek morphology has changed. Note the pronounced change between 1958 and 1991 when the McDermott construction yard was built and a prominent channel was dredged on the south side of the spit. (After Stapleton and Pethick, 1996.)

The extensive gravel ridges and emerged coastal and fluvial terraces of the Spey mouth in 1963. At this time, the river was diverted west by over 1 km, threatening the village of Kingston in the right centre of the view. (Photo from Gemmell et al., 2001b)

Spey Bay showing coastal gravel strandplain backed by emerged marine (and fluvial) terraces. Land over 16 m is mainly glaciofluvial sands and gravels. MoD is a Ministry of Defence weapons testing range. (After Ritchie, 1983.) Westerly extension of the active gravel beach (West Spey Bay). (From Gemmell et al., 2001b.)

The emerged gravel ridges of Spey Bay descend in a ‘staircase’ from 9–10 m OD to the present-day beach. The greatest extent of the unvegetated gravel occurs to the west of Kingston (see Figure 6.35), where this picture was taken. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Movement of the River Spey mouth between 1870 and 1960. (After Grove, 1955 and Gemmell et al., 2001a.)

Diagrammatic representation of the Spey Bay sediment budget. Scale approximate. (After Gemmell et al., 2001a.)

Geomorphology of western Jura in the area of South Shian Bay, showing the ‘staircase’ of emerged gravel ridges. (After Dawson, 1993.)

An unbroken ‘staircase’ of unvegetated emerged gravel beaches falls from c. 30 m OD to sea level on the West Coast of Jura. Looking eastwards towards Glenbatrick. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Cliff erosion and ness migration at Benacre Ness. The ness moves at 25 m a–1 to the north. The early accounts interpret the movement of the ness northwards as a result of accretion on the updrift side of the ness. The alternative view is that transport is towards the north (see Figure 6.40) and that accretion occurs on the lee (northern) side of the ness. Hardy (1966) suggests a reversal of movement of both the spit and direction of transport. (After Williams, 1956.)

Longshore transport data for the East Anglian coast, showing estimated volumes and transport directions related to major shingle features. (After Cambers, 1975).

Sketch map of the Orfordness–Shingle Street area.

Schematic diagrams of shingle ridge groups representing developmental phases of Orfordness (A–B) spit development; (C–D) ness development; (E) extended spit with distal recurves; (F) additions to ness; (G–H) storm beach additions to spit. Each diagram portrays the north–south position accurately; the east–west position is arbitrary. (Based on Carr 1969b, 1972, 1973.)

Variations in ridge patterns of Orfordness, in the southern part of the ness, the northern part of the spit with an earlier recurved spit fronted by individual shingle ridges, now largely destroyed, and also at the distal end of the spit, showing recurves. (Based on Carr, 1973; Green and McGregor, 1988.)

Historical changes in the position of distal features at Orfordness. (After various authors, mainly Carr, 1965; and Green and McGregor, 1988.)

Historical distal changes at Orfordness. showing development of major ridge crests.

The cuspate foreland, Dungeness, Kent. The pecked lines 1 to 3 indicate former positions of the original spit over time, showing the downdrift extension of the spit across the bay. Saltmarsh has formed behind the outer shingle barrier. Over time, updrift erosion and downdrift deposition led to rotation of the feature from position 1 to 3. Land-claim of the marsh occurred in two phases – in the north it was drained in the Roman period, and in the 13th century diversion of the River Rother from its course north of Lydd to its new exit at Camber Castle led to the draining of the southern marshes. (After Bird, 1984, p. 159.)

The historical evolution of Rye Bay. Dates indicate shoreline and beach area from contemporary maps and charts. (After Lovegrove, 1953; and Eddison, 1998.)

Major zones of shingle at Dungeness. a

Schematic representation of the characteristic shingle ridge patterns and profiles at Dungeness. The vertical variation in ridge altitude is typically about 3m.

Historical sediment pathways and development at Dungeness. Each schematic map shows the probable sediment movements associated with the erosional and accretional trends in the shoreline.

Development phases at Dungeness. Ridge height data are mainly from Lewis and Balchin (1940).

Eastward development of Dungeness. The orientation of the beach ridges change and the ness forms is preserved in ridges dated between 600 AD and 1000 AD. The natural ‘Open Pits’ are areas of naturally lower and enclosed land that is seasonally or in some cases permanently freshwater. (Based on Steers, 1946a and Eddison, 1983b.)

Great Britain sandy beaches and coastal dunes, also indicating the location of GCR machair-dune sites (see chapter 9) and other coastal geomorphology GCR sites that contain dunes in the assemblage.

Main features and present-day sediment sources of dune types. Exemplar sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface. See also Table 7.2. (Based on Ranwell, 1972.)

Main features, sediment sources, tidal ranges of sandy beach and dune GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain dune features in the assemblage. It should be noted that all of the machair sites in Chapter 9 have dune features (see Table 9.1). Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface.

Calcium carbonate content of upper beach/foredune in selected coastal geomorphology GCR sites. Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface. (Based in part on Goudie, 1990, and various sources cited by Ritchie and Mather, 1984.)

Variations in calcium carbonate content and pH in foredunes and main dunes. (Based on Salisbury, 1952; and Willis, 1985)

Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I coastal dune habitat(s) (other than machair) as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

Key geomorphological features of Marsden Bay, Marsden Lea to Lizard Point.

Marsden Bay – view looking towards the north-west showing the Magnesian Limestone cliffs and stacks and stumps. (Photo: V.J. May.)

Historical dune development at South Haven. The ‘Training Bank’ extends south-eastwards from point X. (After Diver, 1933.)

View looking north-eastwards towards Sandbanks and Poole Harbour, with Shell Bay (SB) to the right foreground, to the east of South Haven Point (SHP). Gravel Point (GP) lies in the forground to the left (see Figure 7.4 for sketch map). Brownsea Island, in the centre of Poole Harbour (see Figure 10.2, Chapter 10, for map), lies to the WNW of Sandbanks, just out of view. (Photo:© ukaerialphotography.co.uk.)

Cave relationships at Redend Point, South Haven Peninsula GCR site (see Figure 7.4 for location). (a) Cave height, h; width, w; length, l. (b) Relationships between cave height (h), and w and l.

Upton and Gwithian Towans GCR site. Both on the mainland and on the stack the sequence a–d is as follows: (a) dune grasses on blown sand; (b) thin sandy soil on weathered clay and angular intermittent gravel-sized clasts; (c) weathered bedrock; (d) bedrock. (Photo: V.J. May)

Relationships between dunes and cliffs at Peter’s Point. Profiles through section A, B and C are shown.

Aerial photograph of dunes and Crow Point. 1, Westward Ho! cobble beach; 2, Taw–Torridge estuary; 3, Crow Point; 4, Airy Point; 5, Braunton Burrows showing main dune ridges and blowthroughs; 6, ridge-and-runnel beach. (Photo: courtesy Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs, Crown Copyright, Great Scotland Yard.)

Braunton Burrows and Westward Ho! GCR sites, showing locations of emerged beaches and generalized geomorphology. See also Figure 7.11 for photograph of the area around Crow Point.

Emerged beach profile and dune features at Braunton Burrows GCR site. (a) Section through emerged beach and possible former dunes at Saunton Down; (b) section through the central slack within the main dunes, showing that the dunes lie on both marine clay and gravels and sand resting on the underlying Culm Measures bedrock.; (c) cross-section of the dunes showing the relationship of the slacks to the water table. (Based on Keene 1996; Willis 1985; and Willis et al., 1959a.)

Key geomorphological features of Oxwich Bay, together with a typical profile.

Oxwich Burrows. Linear dune ridges are evident, with alignment close to right angles to the shore at the western end of the dunes. Towards the east, the ridges retain this orientation close to the shore, but have a more east–west alignment inland. Similar ridges are absent from the dunes east of the stream mouth. (Photo: courtesy Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs© Countryside Council for Wales.)

Key geomorphological features and profile of the Tywyn Aberffraw GCR site. (After Robinson and Milward, 1983.)

Aerial photograph of Aberffraw, Anglesey, for comparison with Figure 7.14. (Photo: Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs© Countryside Council for Wales.)

Ainsdale National Nature Reserve, view looking towards the west, North of Fisherman’s Path. The site important for geomorphology (it is one of the three largest dune systems of the west coast of England and Wales) as well as for wildlife. In the middle distance a ‘toadscrape’ has been created to encourage natterjack toads. (Photo: copyright English Nature.)

(a) Modern cross-section and zonation (eight zones) of active dune shore and nearshore zone. (After Parker, 1975.) (b) Historical schematic summary of dated peats. (After Tooley, 1978.)

Dune-front processes at Ainsdale.

Luce Sands is located at the head of a long linear embayment that is floored by extensive areas of sands and gravels. The result of unidirectional wave activity is that sediment is transported northwards on to the beach at Luce Sands. (After Single and Hansom, 1994.)

The generalized coastal geomorphology of Luce Sands and Torrs Warren showing the wide intertidal area backed by extensive, largely stabilized sand dune. In the central section of the bay, two large areas of dune have been levelled for military use, and access to these areas and to the adjacent intertidal area is restricted. (After Single and Hansom, 1994.)

The extensive and well-vegetated dune system of Torrs Warren has developed atop a series of emerged gravel ridges. Sections of these ridges are found in swales within the dune system and on the floors of healed blowthroughs. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Sandwood Bay, Sutherland, is dominated by a large and highly dynamic area of blown sand and machair that lies between the sea and the freshwater Sandwood Loch. Arrows show slope direction. (After Ritchie and Mather, 1969.)

This view of the broad sweep of Sandwood Bay from the south shows the large areas of bare sand that indicate a high degree of dynamism at the beach-dune edge and within the dune-complex. Note the development of low tombolos linking the skerries to the beach crest (arrowed). Depending on the state of the tide these can be quite prominent features. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Looking south from the dune-capped gravel bar of Sandwood Bay towards the stack of Am Buachaille (‘the Herdsman’) in the distance. The low embryo dunes in the foreground lie adjacent to dune pillars, he eroded remnants of a more extensive dune cordon. (Photo: Lorne Gill/SNH.)

The geomorphology of Torrisdale and Invernaver is bisected by a glacially scoured rock ridge that is flanked on either side by glaciofluvial terraces that are capped by windblown sands. The unvegetated upper beach is wide and backed by low dunes. Areas of saltmarsh occur along the exit of the River Borgie. (After Ritchie and Mather, 1969.)

The large glaciofluvial terrace at Invernaver viewed from the east is flanked and capped by blown-sand deposits that also climb the ridge behind. The surface of the terrace also supports a wealth of archaeological remains including hut circles and cist burials. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

The intertidal saltmarsh and sandflats of the River Borgie exit looking north-west over the low dune area and beach of Torrisdale Bay in the middle distance. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

The coastal landforms of Dunnet Bay and dunes showing a coastal dune edge that is both undercut by frontal erosion and punctuated in several places by large, linear, blowthrough corridors. (Based on Ritchie and Mather, 1970a and Hansom and Rennie, 2003.)

The wide expanse of Dunnet Bay looking west over the indented exit of the Burn of Midsand. Much of the coastal edge comprises mature dunes whose edge is now steep and undercut and whose surfaces now support re-invigorated marram growth. (Photo: J.D. Hansom.)

Balta Island, Unst, Shetland, is low in the west and high in the east. It is mainly rocky except where sand is blown up-slope from the beach at South Links. (After MacTaggart, 1999.)

The geomorphology of Balta, Unst. There are no dunes but instead the site supports a wide expanse of climbing dune grassland some of which has been eroded into low escarpments. In places the dune surface has been eroded down to a base level of calcarenite by both wind deflation and rill erosion. (After MacTaggart, 1999.)

Generalized coastal features of Strathbeg, showing enclosure of the Loch by gravel ridges and a series of old dune ridges fronted by lower foredunes. Heights are in metres OD. The detailed sections a–c are shown in Figure 7.33a–c. (After Walton, 1956.)